Contracts and Negligence Assignment Essay Example for Free

Contr titles and Negligence Assignment demonstrateQ. 1.1A Contr tour is an symmetricalness that is obligatory when imposed or acknowledged by honor. (Peel, 2010). An arrangement is a nip when forged with the leading approval of those pertain in the digest, for a statutory thoughtfulness and with a legitimate object, and non hereby expressly decl ard to be void (Malaysian thins typify, 1950). puzzles can either be Bilateral or Unilateral. Bilateral Contr form is an agreement where a yell is exchanged for a foreshadow. For exemplify, trim back for the sale of goods is a bilateral subdue. The emptor promised to barter for the goods, in return for the dole outers promise to supply the goods.Figure 1Source https//www.google.co.uk/ face?q=drawing+of+bilateral+ get+by+wikispacesThe supra shows twain sides promise to do some subjectUnilateral Contr defend occurs where just unmatched some unity makes a promise open and available to some(prenominal) ace who comm its the required challenge. For usage collecting the reward much(prenominal) as 100 for a lost scroll or pet is slanted contract.Figure 2 Source http//www.images.123.tw/unilateral-contract/ The preceding(prenominal) shows unless one side promisesContract can also be oral or create verbally. Furthermore in assure for a contract to be legal the offer and credence criteria essential be met. The legitimately acceptable method for a contract to be binding is illustrated in the diagram below. This is known as Formation of Contract. Figure 3 Source (www.laws1008.wikispaces.com)A Contract comprises of six important cistrons before it becomes valid and these argon Offer, Acceptance, love, Intention to wee Legal relation, Certainty and Capacity. If a single one of elements constituteed above is missing, the concur contract will become illegal. The main elements atomic number 18 explained belowOfferThis is the first element in a valid contract. According to Peel (2010) an of fer is an expression of voluntaryness to contract on specified full terms, do with the intention that it becomes binding once it is accepted by the individual to whom it is addressed. An offer must be communicated and should be explicit. The person putting up the offer is referred to as offeror whilst the individual who receives the bid (offer) is referred to as the offeree. in judgment of conviction, an offer must be distinguished from invitation to treat. There atomic number 18 two strips to be considered here. One typesetters lineament is Gibson v Manchester City Council (1979) Mr Gibson was sent a letter that informed him the council may be prep ard to administer the retention to him for 2,180 free patronage. The City Treasurer verbalize in his letter that This letter should non be regarded as firm offer of a mortgage. Included in the letter was the instruction on how to f be and return the enclosed application form to make a formal request to purchase the proper ty.Mr Gibson did as he was requested alone ifbecause of unanticipated change in political leader channelize of the council, the proposed action to administer houses to tenants was changed and Mr Gibson was notified accordingly that it would no longer be possible for him to buy the house. Initially the Court of Appeal sustain on that point was a binding contract among the the council and Mr Gibson but the verdict got over ruled on appeal to the House of sea captains. The outcome of the judgement states that the first note forwarded by the Council was not an offer to sell rather it is an invitation to treat and further stated Mr Gibson did not accept an offer instead made one when he sent his completed requisitioned form. stock-still, in an identical aspect of Storer v Manchester City Council (1974), Mr Storer puts in a bid to purchase his council property and he was forwarded an Agreement for Sale of a Council House form which he write and posted it back to the Council.T he council received his reply before the political reform affecting the gross sales of house to council tenants transpired. The Council contended that the Sale of Agreement Form to sell the Council House was not an offer and in this instance no contract was contracted. However, the Judges failed to agree and ruled that the form was indeed an offer immediately Mr Storer sign(a) the form and forwarded it back to the Council. It is pertinent to point out the differences between these two similar episodes. In the case of Mr Gibson no Agreement for Sale was prepargond and Mr Gibson did not sign. Whereas for Mr Storers case there was an agreement consequently, the negociate has been done and an agreement attained. Acceptance Is defined by Chartered Institute of Taxation as any enounces or actions signifying the offerees consent to the terms proposed by the offeror. Acceptance must be final and unqualified. Acceptance should be conveyed to the offeree.The wordings contained in the te rms of the adoption must be exact wordings in the terms of offer. Carlill v Carbolic Smoke world Company (1891) case refers. The company placed an match in a newspaper, and in addition put a sum of cash on deposit with a bank and say they would pay anyone who contacted influenza while using their products, a paradoxical sleepedy for cu adjoin flu, coughs, colds, bronchitis. It stated that anyone who had the ailment after taking the medication shall be recompensed with 100. A consumer, Ms Carlill, took the medication and caught the flu. The firm was fulfilld by her for indemnity and her case was successful. Consideration means some intimacy of value is disposed(p) by one party to the order it is the price ofthe promise (Chartered Institute of Taxation 2013) In Dunlop Pneumatic Tyre Co. Ltd v Selfridges Co. Ltd. (1915)Consideration is an act of forbearance of one party or the promise thereof, is the party which the promise of the other is bought and promise and so accustome d for value put throughable. Selfridges broke the term of agreement and Dunlop fulfild and lost the case because Dunlop could not enforce the contract because they did not provide any consideration for the promise made by Selfridge. It is important to play up that past consideration is no consideration. This means that anything done before the promise in return is given is no consideration and it is not adequate to make the promise binding. Types of consideration includeExecuted (present) this is when an act is completed. An example is a Unilateral contract Executory this is when promises stomach been made in exchange for performance of acts in the future. For instance, a Bilateral contract Past consideration.In addition there ar certain requirements for consideration to be valid and these are It must not be past. However, there are exceptions such as(a) Previous request where the promisor has previously asked the other to provide services. Lampleigh v Braithwait (1605) (b) Bu siness Situations, that is, when a thing is done in business and both parties perceived that it will be paid for. Caseys Patents (1892) refers. (c) The pen nib of Exchange execute 1882 Section 27 (1) says provided that previous debt is valid for a bill of exchange. It has to be forbearance to sue that is, if an individual has valid claim against another person but promises to forebear the enforcement. Combe v Combe (1951) Alliance Bank v Broom (1864) It should be passed at the request of offerer. Durga Prasad v Baldeo (1880) It must represent from the promisee. Dutton v Poole (1677) Tweddle v. Atkinson (1861) It must be sufficient. Thomas v Thomas (1842) Chappel v Nestle (1960). Cannot consist totally on sentiment value White v Bluett (1853) It must be legal that is not doing things that are immoral Wyatt v Kreglinger and Fernou (1933) Performance of existing duty that is, person railroad cable carrying out duties that chthonic general rules, they are required to do will no t provide consideration.Traditional motiveity for rule Collins v Godefroy (1831).Carrying out additional duties Glasbrook Brothers v Glasmorgan County Council (1925) Existing Contr material Duty this is where an individual has promised to do a thing already obligated to them under a contract that will not totality to a received consideration. (Stik v Myrick (1809) 2 Camp 317 Hartley v Ponsonby (1857) quitiam v Roffey if a 3rd party is owed for existing contract Duties to pay debts. This is where debts are paid in instalment. This is not a valid consideration and it is known as Pinnels Case. Foakes v Beer (1884) Intention to create legal relations Parties to the agreement must intend to go into a legally binding agreement or contract. This is an intention from the two guided parties to go into a lawful and binding association. If there is no intention the agreement will be void. Intention to create legal relations could be Commercial or business relations.Kleinwort Benson Ltd v Mining Corporation Bhd (1989), or, genial friends relation. Simpkins v Pays (1955) and Family or domestic relations. Balfour v Balfour (1919). Capacity All those involved in a contract should possess legitimate ability to go into it. An individual unsafe physically, demented or a youngster under the age of 18 cannot go into a binding. However, certain groups of spate who project limitations such as mental health issue, drunks and minors under the age of 18. Those are the mentally ill, bush league under the age of 18 as stipulated by the Family Reform Act 1969. e.g. Chapple v Copper (1844) where a service was considered necessary but in the case of Nash v Inman (1908).Where a vest was supplied to a minor would nonplus been considered necessary but in this case it was the other way round as, purchase of the waistcoat is not necessary because the father had already provided the minor with several waistcoats. If a minor procure a luxurious thing and did not acquire because of n ecessity, the minor is liable and be responsible for his action. Privy of Contract means that a contract cannot under normal situation confer rights or impose responsibilities acclivitous from it on any person except those involved in it. It is also known as Rights of the troika party Act 1999. Treitel (2004) It isin also the family between the parties to an agreement, though there are exceptions, Q. 1.2. verbal expression to Face (Verbal or Oral) This is an agreement based on spoken promises, however it may be difficult to tell and it legally binding andboth parties will understand what they harbor agreed to and bargained in good creed. www.ehow.com Phillip v Brooks (1919) case refers. It is case that involved a thief who wrongly pretended to be Sir George Bullogh and bought jewellery under Sir Bulloghs name with a hindrance. The thief convinced the jeweller to part with the ring because his wifes birth twenty-four hour period was next day. The jeweller was convinced the was indeed Sir Bullogh after checking the address directory which tallies with Sir Bulloghs address details. As soon as the rogue left, he sold the ring under the false name of Mr Frith and vanished into thin air. The claimant instituted a unilateral mis support of identity legal action.The case was affirmed that the operation was not void for shift because the parties transacted a face-to-face contract and in law it was assumed they dealt with the person before them and not the person they claimed to be. Written Contract This is a written document indicating an agreement between two individuals. The parties can be gentle beings, organisations and businesses. All parties will begin to append their signature to the contract to be legitimate. It also acts to protect both parties from split up of contract. www.wisegeek.com On-line This is also known as place Selling when goods are sold to consumers void of face-to-face contact and done through Inter pay, e.g. Amazon.co.uk, eBay, booking vacation and on line banking. This type of transaction is governed by the Distance Selling Act 2000.Four contractual elements are contained in on-line contracts offer, acceptance, consideration and intention. Contracts by Deed is a written document signed by the promisor and it must be clear be clear in the wording of the document that is intended to take effect as a deed. The must be witnessed by a troika party. (Chartered Institute of Taxation 2013). The property title will not be given to the potential purchaser until the final salary is made. It is also referred to as Sales Contract. Q. 1.3. terms are the contents of contract. It is utilize in the civil law, to denote the space of time given to the debtor to discharge his obligation.Terms could be communicatory mattering from positive stipulations of an agreement. It could be of right or of bedeck it is not within the agreement. Terms are of grace when it is afterwards granted by the judge at the requisition of the debtor. Contracts terms may be expressive or implied and could be classified as either takes, or warranties or innominate terms. www.tutor2u.net An express term is one thathas been particularly stated and agreed by both individuals at the time the contract is executed. It could be written or oral. www.tutor2u.net Implied terms are words or stipulations that a romance presumes were planned to be bodied in a contract meaning the terms are not expressively mentioned in the contract. www.elawresources.co.uk It could beTerms implied through custom, Hutton v Warren (1836) EWHC J61 In detail. The Moorcock (1889) 14 PD 64At legal philosophy Shell UK v Lostock Garage Limited (1976) 1 WLR 1187There are two main types of implied term(a)Terms implied by statue for example Sales of Goods Act 1979. There are somewhat four key supplying but I will use Section as an example that says goods should be of satisfactory eccentric meaning they should be up to standard a rational individual wo uld consider satisfactory and if the purchaser says the good is being purchased for a distinct reason, there is an implied terms the products are suitable for the intended purpose. www.tutor2u/net (b) Terms implied by law judiciarys an example is if the courts held that landlords of blocks of flat should keep the communal areas including lifts, stairs etc. in a bonny state of repairs so that the term was implied into the rent contract. an example case is Liverpool City Council v Irwin (1977) AC 236 HL Innominate term this when the parties involved fail to classify the commitments in the contract, the court will hold that they are unattested and apply the ex-post consequence of breach test.The judgement given will depend on the magnitude of the breach. Case of Hong Kong Fir Shipping v Kawasaki Kaisen Kaisha (1962) 2 QB 26 refers. Condition is a paramount term of the contract that goes deeply into the contract. For example if a proviso is contravened the guiltless party is author ise to cast off the contract and claim compensations. In the matter of Poussard v Spiers (1876) 1 QBD 410. Madame Poussard entered into contract to perform as an opera singer for tercet months. She was ill five days before the opening night and unable to perform for four days, held that she breached condition and that Spiers were entitled to end the contract. Warranties are minor terms of a contract which are not central to the existence of the contract. If a warranty is breached the innocent party may claim abuses but cannot end the contract.Bettini v Gye (1876) QBD 183.Trader puff is an expression of exaggeration made by a sales person or tack in advertisement that concerned the goods offered for sale. It represents opinions instead of facts and is usually not considered a legally binding promise. ideal of trader puff this is in good shape and your wife will love this car Representation Term is used in reference to any denotative or implied statement made by one of the parti es to a contract in the course of talks to another regarding a particular fact or circumstances that influence the consummation of the deal and if not honoured the innocent party may bring an action for misrepresentation. (There are three types of misrepresentation as follows Innocent, dishonorable and negligent misrepresentations (e-law resources)Learning Outcome 2Mini-case AThe case above is an expressive term Bi-lateral case one involving Fiona and her uncle which involves offer and acceptance. Uncle Arnold was the offerer and Fiona the offree. The offer here was 15,000. The main element of this case was that of acceptance. The agreement failed out-of-pocket to non-acceptance and time as consideration because the uncle said fairly quickly with a third party involved I have already had a good offer from my colleague so the following is to be considered when giving the verdict Term Offer 15,000 and Acceptance by Fiona, Bi-lateral, both written and expressive Consideration Time fairly quicklyThird Party involved with better offer (Privity)Even though no clear straight form of acceptance occurred it is still a legal binding agreement but in this case Fiona cannot claim compensation for breach of agreement because it failed due to her delay and inattention in not responding in time. Therefore, if Fiona decides to go to court her case is not substantial decent to pose her for damages. However, under vicarious liability Fiona can make a claim in court if she wishes. An example is Harvey v Facey (1893) AC 552 Privy Council. This was a case between Harvey and Facey in which correspondences were exchanged regarding sales of bumper pressure group Pen asking for the sale of the property. (This was a distance offer as it was done through telegram).When Harvey asked Will you sell us BumperHall Pen?. Facey responded Lowest price for the Bumper Hall Pen 900 to which Harvey responded We agree to purchase Bumper Hall Pen for 900 asked by you. Please forward your ti tle deed so that we may recrudesce early possession. Unknown to Harvey Facey was already negotiating with Kingston Council. The transaction failed and Harvey sued Facey. The issue in this case is was that there was no clear offer from Facey to sell the property to Harvey so the Privy Council ruled that An offer cannot be implied by writing. It can only be concrete and sound. The appellant Harvey cannot imply that Facey made an offer when he did not (www.casebriefsummary.com) Mini case BThis is a distance, face-to face executed consideration and unilateral case involving offer of intention made by Mrs metal puddleer open to eachone so no need for acceptance in this instance. The offer here is the reward of 10 if her lost cat is ground which did not involve transport cost. Mrs Smith refusal to David 25 which include cost of transportation is valid and justified as payment for transportation was not included in the advert so therefore David has no case and could not claim for compen sation if he goes to court. overtake Leonard v PepsiCo. PepsiCo placed a superfluous television advert stating Pepsi points if Pepsi was drank highlighting a young person arriving at school in Harriet thousand and mentioned that the Harrier jet was for 7,000,000 Pepsi points. Leonard attempted to collect the Harrier jet by forwarding 15 Pepsi points accompanied with a cheque for $700,000.00 in order to obtain the Harrier jet. PepsiCo refused the delivery of the Harrier jet. Leonard lost the case because advertisement was not an offer. Mini-case CMrs Harris, the owner of three rented houses in Extown, asks her next-door neighbour, Ted, to collect rent from the tenants for her while she is abroad on business. Ted collects the rents and when Mrs Harris returns, she says to him, Ill give you 50 for your work. Later Mrs Harris refuses to pay Ted. Here is a bi-lateral verbal, expressive offer and acceptance case between Mrs Harris and Ted. The main contract element issue here is conside ration because the act has already been performed by Ted before the agreement was met. Even with no binding agreement, the rule of consideration applies in this case because consideration can never be past or post, therefore in this case, Ted can sue Mrs Harris for consideration and breach of Contractfor his claims. For example see the case of Labriola v Pollard Group, Inc. (2004) Mini-case DThe above is an offer and acceptance bi-lateral expressive written contract case between Lynx Cars Ltd and Roadstar Ltd though the agreement is not legal binding. The offeror is Lynx Cars Ltd whilst the offeree is Roadstar Ltd. The contract term as stated here are the quantity of cars (2000), time limit of five years with no financial hurt incurred. Roadstar Ltd was informed in good time of just four weeks cancellation into the agreement. My verdict is that for Roadstar Ltd to make a claim the agreement must be legally binding which is missing in this case. Therefore Roadstar can withdraw from the agreement but cannot make any claims for compensation because of reasons given above. Mini-case EThe above case was initially a unilateral case because it was advertised and opened to all but after the agreement was signed between silklike Cars and capital of Minnesota it became Bi-lateral. The agreement was also an expressive one with contract term of conditions, warranty and trade puffs met. However if in the future something goes wrong with the car, Paul is not entitled too claims because all the sales conditions were met as of the time of purchase. Also if the car was discover to have been stolen, Slick Cars Ltd and not Paul will be liable for prosecution. The warranty on the car includes the refund of road tax payment and an implied term of purchase a car from their hundreds of cars.All the conditions regarding the sales of the car have been met bargain including the traders puff. My advice to Paul is to go forth and buy the car as he has no liability regarding the car e ven if the car was to be a stolen one. However if the Trade puff does not represent what the advert says, or any of the condition is missing, Paul has the right to terminate the agreement his money will be refunded but will not be entitled to any compensation. However if the Trade puff defaults and Paul has evidence to support it, Paul can sue for compensation. Verdict Paul to buy the car but he should bear in mind that the warranty cannot end the contract but again, he could be compensated. Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball Company (1891) case refers. Mini-case FThe above is a clear case of tort neglectfulness and breach duty of misgiving. Negligence misadventure on Duty of Care on both the part of the Council and the vacant Centre. The Councils notice was partially obscured so not visible to Jim and his wife, also the Council should have cut the overgrow shrubs failure to do this is maintenance omission as this possibility could have been prevented in addition Jims car damaged b y the Council van is a health is an implied term and guard duty issue for which the Council is liable. The unoccupied Centre on the other hand did not show any Duty of Care when the accident happened and therefore liable to pay for injuries and other related costs. In view of the above, it is my considered advice that Jim and his wife get compensated. See Blake v Galloway (2004) CAQ. 3.1 civil wrong is a civil wrong committed against an individual and originated from the Latin word tortum meaning twisted wrong and also conceded in court law as arguments for a legal action that can be resolved through compensations. See, e.g. Smith v. United States, 507 U.S. 197 (1993). This is a case involving the of a husband who got killed whilst working for a private firm under contract to a Federal representation in Antarctica a region with no recognised government and without civil tort law and the wife sued The United States under the Federal civil wrong Claims Act (FTCA) for wrongful fi nal stage in action.The case was brush off by the District court for lack of jurisdiction because Mrs Smiths case was stopped by FTCAs foreign country exception policy that states that the statutes waiver of sovereignty immunity does not apply, however, the Court of Appeals affirmed. (https//supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/507/179/case.html) The principal reason for tort law is ensuring compensation is given for the injuries sustained and to prevent others from committing the same damages. Inclusive of the types of injuries the injured party may recover are going away of salaries fitness, pain hardship, and rational health check costs. These are inclusive of both present and future contained losses. Tort could be in form of trespass, assault, battery, negligence, products liability, and intentional infliction of emotional distress Torts are classified into three categories as follows learned torts These are intentional acts that are rationally and foreseeably done to inju re another person. Intentional torts are unethical behaviours the suspect knew or should have known could transpire as a top of their actions or inactions, an example is to intentionally hit a person. Case of Broome v Perkins 1987 Crime LR 271 refers. The appellant was diabetic and drove in an unsafe manner whilst pathetic from hypo-glycaemia, a low blood sugar take caused by an excess of insulin in the bloodstream. His claim of non-insane automatism failed because of evidence that he had exercised conscious have got over his car by veering away from other vehicles so as to avoid a collision and braking.His was plunge guilty for driving without undue care and attention Negligent torts are the most green tort used to describe behaviour that constitute unreasonable risks to harm to a person or property or where the suspects actions were irrationally precarious. Vaughan v Menlove (1837) 3 Bing NC 467 in this case the defendants haystack caught net because of poor ventilation. The defendant had been warned several times that the haystack could cause fire but he contended he had used his acumen and did not anticipate a risk of fire. The court held his logic was inadequate. He was adjudged by the standard of a reasonable man. (www.e-lawresources.co.uk) However, it pertinent to mention that not all wrongful act is a tort. In order for a tort to be constituted the following must exist either wrongful act is not a tort. To constitute a tort,There must be an groundless action carried out an individual person The unjustified action must be serious in nature to have given warranted a judicial relief and Such judicial relief should be in the manner of an action for un- represented injuries.Strict liability torts are when a person places another in danger in the absence of negligence because he possessed weapon, animal or product and it is not compulsory for the complainant to prove negligence meaning mens rea. http//education-portal.com See Sweet v Parsley 1970 HL This is a case involving a landlady who lets rooms to tenants however she kept a room for herself and visits once in a while to collect her letters and the rent. In her absence the house was raided by the police and hempen necktie found. She wasfound guilty under s5 of the Dangerous Drugs Act 1965 (now replaced), of being concerned in the management of set forth used for the smoking of cannabis. She appealed and claimed no understanding of the situation and could not be expected to rationally have acquired such understanding.Her conviction was revoked by The House of Lords, due to lack of proof that she purposely rented her house to be used for drug-taking, since the statute in question created a serious, or really criminal criminal offense, the judgement convicting her would have grave consequences for the landlady who is the defendant. Lord Reid stated that a stigma still attaches to any person convicted of a truly criminal offence, and the more serious or more disgraceful the offence the greater the stigma. Lord Reid in furtherance pointed out that it was inappropriate to levy her for total liability for this type of wrongdoing because the people who were in charge for renting properties are not likely to have anticipated everything that their tenants were doing. It is imperative to mention that there are both similarities and differences in torts. Similarities between tort and contract lawsThe above two laws function the same similarities in that they are both civil wrong. In tort the injured person will claim damages with a classical example of Donoghue v Stevenson (1932) whilst in contract the injured person will sue for compensation an example is the case of Dunlop Pneumatic Tyre Co. Limited v new-made Garage Motor Co Limited (1915) A C 79. In both tort and contract violations monetary rewards or any payment that will atone for the losses Differences between tort and contract laws are shown in the table below Tort LawContract LawNo relationshi p with the claimant, could be total strangerClaimants could be known to each other and parties to the contract Consent not necessary liability is warranted by one individual against another Consenting parties are involvedTort is punitiveContracts is positive, creative situationsTort is used to claim compensation by the injured partyContract involves two or more partiesIn tort damages are imposed by court or negotiatedIn Contract compensations are awarded as stipulated in the contractual agreement Tort law is not codifiedContract law is codifiedTort law safeguards right in rem available against everyoneIt protects rights in personam meaning against a particular person Damages are un-liquidatedDamages are liquidatedSource http//www.acadmia.eduQ. 3.2Negligence is the failure to take reasonable care or exercise the required amount of care to preventing harming others. An example is where an accident occurs that injured another person or cause damage to the car because the device number one wood was driving erratically, the driver could be sued for negligence. http//www.thismatter.com Negligence in behaviour and duty usually have a disastrous effect on individuals and the company as whole, and in order to protect the society from these dangerous acts, legal steps are taken such as included in the elements of negligence. Consequently, elements of negligence as explained below Duty of Care is the statutory obligation made mandatory on every rational human being of sound mind to exercise a level of care towards an individual, as reasonably in all the situations, so as to avoid injury to other fellow human being from being or damage his or her property. An example is the celebrated case of Donoghue v Stevenson (1932) in which the claimant drank ginger beer bought by her friend containing a dead snail causing her harm .This case brought about the neighbour principle test and according to Lord Atkin Reasonable care must be taken to avoid acts or omission which one can reasonably foresee to injure ones neighbour and this brought about the question Who then in law is my neighbour? lives are those individuals who will be closely and directly affected by ones act This case led to the Neighbours principle. Duty of care is therefore based on the relationship of different parties involved, negligent act or omission and the reasonable foreseeability of loss to that person http//.www.carewatch.blogspot.co.uk. The loss here may arise as a result of misfeasance or nonfeasance and may also cause pureeconomic loss as I the case of Ultramares Corporation v Touche (1931) and psychiatrist damage or nervous shock. Case of Alcock v Chief Constable of South Yorkshire legal philosophy (1991) refers In order to establish a Care of duty, the listed sluggard points below also known as the tripartite contained in negligence must be met The element must be reasonably be foreseeableThere must be a relationship between the claimant and the defendant It must be fair, ju st and reasonable in such environment or situation for a duty of care to be sanctioned. Example is the matter of Caparo v Dickman (1990) HL a case involving auditors certifying false account for the company. (www.sixthformlaw.info) Breach of Duty is where the defendant fails to meet the standard of care as stipulated by law and to confirm if the defendant owed the plaintiff any moral or obligatory duty. However the defendant is not enforced to have any contractual liability with the plaintiff. The responsibility can be moral or legitimate. Example is the case of Willsher v Essex Area Health Authority (1988) 1 AC 1074 in which a premature babe was given overdose of oxygen by a junior(a) doctor that affected the babys retina and made him blind. The case was affirmed as the defendant was in breach of duty (www.e-lawresource.co.uk) Psychiatric Injury This arises from sudden assault on the nervous system (www.lawteacher.net) and until deep was uncertain in tort of negligence.For claima nts to make claims regarding psychiatric injury he or she must be able to prove that the injury was genuine. However emotions of grief or sorrow are not enough to cause psychiatric injury Hinz v Berry (1970) 2 QB 40 The Hinz family went out for a day trip when a jaguar driven by Berry ran into the Hinzs car killing the Mr Hinz and injuring the children. Mrs Hinz witnessed the happening and became depressed but her claim was rejected by the Court of Appeal. Factual Causation This is the process where it must be proved reasonably in the law that the defendants action led to damage. This in some cases, applying but for test in most cases resolve the disputed torts law cases but if it was proved, the fact must go hand in hand with the other elements, in order to make the case valid and if established, then the defendant is said to be liable to damages.The case of Barnet v Chelsea Kensington Hospital guidance Committee (1969) in which a Mr Barnett went to hospital and complained of st omach pains and vomiting, he was attended to by a nurse whoinformed the doctor on duty. The doctor told the nurse to send him home and visit his GP in the morning. Mr Barnet passed away five hours later due to arsenic poisoning. Even if the doctor had examined Mr Barnett at the time he visited the hospital there was nothing he could have done to save him. The hospital was found not liable but this case introduced the but for test that is, the hospital was not negligent for the death of Mr Barnett. Bermingham. (2005). However, there is no need to prove negligence has a certain pattern or order. The elements are principally the determining rules in assessing whether a certain case is a case of negligence or not.Damages This is the sum of money a plaintiff gets awarded in a typeface. There are confused types of damages such as Special damages caused by the injury received inclusive of medical and hospital bills, ambulance charges, loss of wages, property repair or replacement costs o r loss of money due on a contract. planetary damages is a result of the other partys actions, however, they are subjective both in nature and in determining the value of damages. These include pain and suffering, future problems and disqualifying effect of an injury, loss of ability to perform various acts, shortening of life span, mental anguish, and loss of companionship, loss of reputation in a libel suit, humiliation from scars, loss of anticipated business and other harm. warning(a) (Punitive) damages This is the combination of punishment and the setting of public example.Exemplary damages may be awarded when the defendant acted in a malicious, violent, oppressive, fraudulent, wanton or grossly reckless way in causing the limited and general damages to the plaintiff. On occasion punitive damages can be greater than the actual damages, for example, in a sexual harassment case or fraudulent schemes, though these damages are often requested for, they are rarely granted. Nomin al damages These are damages awarded when the actual harm is minor and an award is necessitated under the circumstances. The most famous case was when Winston Churchill was awarded a shilling (about 25 cents) against author Louis Adamic, who wrote that the British Prime Minister had been drunk at a dinner at the White House. The Times. (1947) Liquidated damages are damages pre-set by the parties in a contract to be awarded in case one party defaults as in breach of contract. The case of Dunlop Pneumatic Tyre Company v new-fangled Garage Motor co (1915) AC 70 refers.Defences forNegligence This is where the defendant tries to introduce evidence that he did not cause the plaintiffs damage or injury. (www.injury.findlaw.com) There are several defensive structures available to negligence claims such as Violenti non fit injuria This is a Latin phrase which means for a willing person, there is no harm and used in civil cases as a defence especially when the claimant voluntarily assente d to start legal risk of harm at his own peril. In the case of Smith v Baker (1891) AC 325. The plaintiff was utilize by the defendants on a railway aspect site and during the course of his work rocks were moved over his head by a crane. It was known to both the plaintiff and his employers that there a risk possibility of a stone falling on him and had front complained to his employer about the risk A stone fell and injured him and he sued his employers for negligence.His employer pleaded violenti non fit injuria and declined by the court because although the plaintiff knew about the risk and continued to work but no evidence shown that he voluntarily undertook to run the risk of injury, but his continuance to work did not indicate volens (his consent). Contributory negligence This defence applies where the damage suffered by was caused partly both by the claimant and the defendant. Here the defendant must prove that the claimant failed to take reasonable care for his own safety and this caused the damage. This was enacted in the Law Reform Contributory Negligence Act 1945 according to Cracknell (2001) that (1) Where any person suffers damage as the result is partly of his own fault and partly of the fault of any other person or persons, a claim in respect in respect of the damage shall not be defeated by by reasons of the fault of the person suffering the damage, but the damages recoverable in respect thereof shall be reduced to such finis as the court thinks just and equitable having regard to the claimants share in the responsibility of the damage so, if contributory negligence is confirmed the claimant would be awarded the cost proportional to his own fault of the damage.For example if the claimant was entitled to 20,000.00 (Twenty thousand Pounds and he was responsible for 25 per cent of the damage, the claimant would be awarded 15,000.00 (Fifteen thousand Pounds only). However, sometimes contributory negligence operates in complete defence as in ge neral law where the court found the claimant to be partially blame for their injuries they might receive nothing. In the case of Butterfield v Forrester (1809) 11 East 60the plaintiff was injured when rode his horse erratically and ran into a post obstruction negligently left on the road by the defendant near his house with the intentions of carrying out repairs. A witness confirmed the plaintiff (Butterfield) was riding dangerously and could not avoid the post. The witness further testified that if the plaintiff was not riding dangerously he would have seen the post and the accident would have been avoided. The plaintiff was found guilty of contributory negligence and received nothing. Froom v Butcher (1976) QB 286. The driver of a car did not use the safety tap and was seriously injured in the accident with the defendants car as a result of the defendants negligence. The injuries sustained by the driver would not have been that serious if he wore the back belt. His damages were reduced by 20 per cent by the Court of Appeal.This accident resulted in the entranceway of not wearing safety belt as a criminal offence. Statutory or Common Law Justification In certain situation a person may have a worthy defence to a tort action if he has valid evidence that his actions are covered by statutory rule and applicable law or legislation. A good example is the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1968 distinctly setting out the power of Police to arrest, stop and search and entry. If these powers are used fairly and responsibly, the Act will yield a good defence to a tort action. Self-defence might possibly be a good justification in common law for tortious actions as in the case of R v Gladstone Williams (1984) 78 Cr. App. R. 276. Ex turpli causa non oritur actio (Illegality) This is coined from Latin to mean of an illegal act there can be no lawsuit (www.legal-glossary.com) In the case of Vellino v Chief Constable of Greater Manchester (2002) 1 WLR 218 Court of Appeal Vellino was a regular offender with history of convictions. He was arrested and as usual tried to jump from the second grade window and got himself injured seriously.The Police were aware of his several attempts in the past and knew this to be dangerous but did nothing to stop him from escaping. In his attempt to escape from the second floor he injured himself and suffered fractured skull resulting in brain damage and quadriplegia also known as tetraplegia, a paralysis caused by the injury he sustained making completely dependent on people for support. Vellino sued the Police and claimed they owe him duty of care to prevent him from injuring himself which the Police denied and in their defence raised ex turpi causa that it was a criminaloffence for an arrested person to attempt to escape. The claimants appeal was dismissed. Consent Is a full defence raised in civil cases especially when a defendant is sued for civil litigation for committing an intentional tort. . It is also refer red to as speculation of risk and it plays an important role in law. In common law consent is regarded as a necessary ingredient for creating a binding contractual bargain.In addition Consent is very closely linked with volenti non fit injuria. Below are the types of Consent Express Consent Is when the defendant agreed to willingly submit to plaintiffs action. For example, Tom willingly takes part in a tackle football game and Henry tackled Tom, Tom suffers a knee injury. Henry is not liable because Tom patently consented by agreeing to take part in the game. Implied Consent is deduced from plaintiffs conduct. (OBrien v Cunard S. S. Co., 28 N. E. 266 (1891) complainant was a passenger abroad on one of the Defendants ships. She was vaccinated whilst on the ship and suffered complication resulting in injury. She sued for assault and injury. Her case was dismissed on the grounds that she did not object when the defendants doctor indicated he wants to vaccinate her.Informed Consent T his is an individuals agreement to allow something to occur made with full knowledge of the risks involved and other options to his chosen course of action. However, consent by the plaintiff does not authorise the defendant to do whatever he wishes to the plaintiff because of the contact that the defendant made with the plaintiff should not go beyond what the plaintiff consented to. For example, if I visited my Dentist to remove a rotten tooth and in the process he noticed a tumour and removed it without my consent. I could sue my GP for assault and injury because I did not consent to him to remove the tumour I only consented to him to remove my rotten tooth. (1) Consent will be void if it is obtained by trickery or by fraudulent means. Bartell v. State 82 N.W. 142 (Wis. 1900). Case refers.(2) Consent will be void if it is given under duress or threats of physical force.(3) Consent will also be void if it was given as a result of a mistake and the mistake was(a) Caused by the defend ant, or(b) The defendant was aware of the mistake and he did not alert the plaintiff.Necessity It is an affirmative defence that is raised when a tortious act is committed by an individual, for the prevention of greater harm or injury from occurring to the community, defendant or defendants property. Regina v Dudley Stephen (1884) 14 QBD 273 DC. In this case, Dudley and Stephen the defendants and Brooms were ship wrecked with Parker, a fellow young seaman. They have been without food and water for almost three weeks. The defendants killed Parker to provide food for themselves to save them from starvation but Brooms dissented. They were found guilty of murder (www.casebriefs.com) Q. 3.3Vicarious liability is one which on one individual as a result of an action of another. Rutherford and Bone. (1993). For example, is the liability of an employer for the acts and omission of his employees. It can be regarded as strict liability due to the defendant not being at fault. The most popular vicarious liability is when the employee otherwise the tortfeasor commits a tort while in his employers employment, the employer is held liable and this due to the doctrine of respondeat higher-ranking a Latin phrase meaning let the master answer . For a court to establish if an employee acted whilst in employment the following must be confirmed if Did the action happen whilst the employee is at work and during working hours? Did the employer employ the employer when the incident occurred? Was the injury due to the actions of the employee in the role the employed was hired? Example is the case of Mattis v Pollock (t/a Flamingos Night conjunction) (2003) EWCA Civ 887 The bouncer was employed by Flamingo night club and in the course of performing his duty he got into a fight with one the customers and stabbed the customer.His employer were held liable for the injuries caused to the customer. some other case example is Other was in which a business can be liable in vicarious manner is when the employee acted in an unauthorised ways whilst performing the contractual duties, or when the employee acted against his employers instruction, or if the employee commits fraud andacted against his work boundaries. In all the above, the employer is still liable vicariously. Examples of different cases are enumerated below In the case of Century Insurance Co. Road Transport Board (1942) AC 509 HL and Limpus v. capital of the United Kingdom General Omnibus Co (1862). The driver o a gasolene tanker was in employment whilst transferring petrol into and underground storage tank. He struck a match to light a cigarette resulted in explosion that caused a lot of damage. It was held negligent the driver was negligent in carrying out his duties and his employer was found negligent. Limpus v. London General Omnibus Co. (1862) in this case the driver was speeding to collect passengers and purposely obstructed the driver of a rival company and overturned the latters bus despite that the bus driver had been warned strictly not to cause obstruction.His employer LGOC was found liable Employee committing a fraud whilst in employment is illustrated in the case of Lloyd v Grace, Smith and Co. 1912 in this case the plaintiff wants to sell some cottages and went to the solicitors. The managing clerk of Lloyd conned the plaintiff to transfer the cottages to him and embezzled part of the mortgage money. Lloyd was sued by the employee and they were found liable for the fraud committed by the clerk even though it was only the clerk who benefited from the fraud. Control Test The control test was the pilot burner test that has its origin in master and servant law and it also explore who has dominance over the way work is carried out the work. This test was applied in Mersey dock and Harbour Boards v Coggins and Griffiths Ltd (1946) Mersey go after was in charge of training and for providing crane instrument to organizations. Mersey contracted one of his operators to Stev edore Company and caused injuries through his negligent in operating of the crane. Mersey Dock was found liable as it was assumed the crane operator was in their employment as a contractor.Finally, the Employees criminal behaviour is one of the positive factors of how a business can be vicariously liable because if whilst in employment commits any criminal action his employer is liable vicariously the case of Heasemans v Clarity Cleaning (1987) Court of Appeal where the defendant employed an office cleaner who in the course of her duty used the plaintiffs telephone for foreign calls. The appeal of the contactor was successful as it was held that was not vicariously liable for his employees act Health and precaution Act 1974 It is also referred to as HSWA or HASAWA is the main pieceof law or legislation that covers occupational health and safety at work and gives wide-ranging duties on employers to ensure in a reasonable practical manner the health, safety and welfare at work of al l employees, likewise it also expect some degree of responsibilities from employees. Source (http//www.hse.gov.uk/legislation/hswa.htm)The main purpose of this Act is to ensureThe security, of health and safety as well as the welfare of individuals at work To protect individuals against risk to health and or safety in relations to the activities of individuals at work To control and prevent the use of illegally acquired of baseless dangerous substances. Employers responsibilities includeTo provide and maintain safety equipment and safe systems at work. To ensure hazardous materials used are properly stored, handled, utilised and transported safely To provide supervision, instruction, information, training at work for employees To ensure the control of certain emission into airTo provide a safe working environmentTo provide a written safety policy/risk assessment for employees Look after the health and safety of others such as the members of public. On the other hand, the employees responsibilities include Taking care of their own health and safety and that of others, failure to do this makes the employees liable Must avoid interfering with things provided by the employer in the interest of health and safety Must cooperate with their employersSource (http//www.slideshare.net/ManojRNair/work-based-learning-health-and-safety-act-1974) Finally, it is worth mentioning that there are other several applicable legislations amongst which are Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999Fatal Accident Act 1976Limitation Act 1980Law Reform (Contributory Negligence) Act 1945Employers Liability (Compulsory Insurance) Act 1969Employers Liability (Defective Equipment) 1969Civil Procedures Rules (as amended by the Woolf reforms)Sources (www.leeds.ac.uk)In conclusion the above report has critically and chronically been done and analysed to reflect on all the relevant issues affecting Aspects of Contracts and Negligence.Vicarious Liability. 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